This project paper on Learning Theories is a compilation, a literature review of a number of classic but especially modern ideas on the topic. Three major sub-topics are presented herein: "Learning Theories: Historical Overview and Trends", "Learning to Learn: Adult Education" and "Learning Activity." Each of them have separate bibliographies.

I. Learning Theories: Historical Overview and Trends

The following bibliography (APA style) was researched and referenced in text below, for this sub-topic.

Brown, J. S. 1990. Toward a new epistemology for learning. In Frasson, C., Gauthier, G. (eds.), 1990 Intelligent Tutoring System: At the Crossroads of Artificial Intelligence in Education, Abex, Norwood, New Jersey

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., Duguid, P. 1989. Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Education Researcher 18(1): 32-42

De Corte, E. 1977. Some aspects of research on learning and cognitive development in Europe. Educational Psychology 12(2): 197-206

Gagne, R. M. 1985. The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction, 4th edn. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York

Glaser, R. 1991. The maturing of the relationship between the science of learning and cognition and educational practice. Learning and Instruction, 1(2): 129-44

Nuthall, G., Alton-Lee, A. 1990. Research on teaching and learning: Thirty years of change. Elementary School Journal. 90(5): 547-70

Pintrich, P. R., De Groot, E. V. 1990, Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology. 82(1): 33-40

Resnick, L. B. 1987. Instruction and the cultivation of thinking. In: De Corte, E., Lodewijks, H., Parmentier, R., Span, P. (eds.) 1987 Learning and Instruction: European Research in an International Context, Vol. 1. Pergamon Press, Oxford

Schiefele, U. 1991. Interest, learning, and motivation. Educational Psychology. 26(3-4): 229-323

Shuell, T. J. 1986. Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research. 60(4): 411-36

Shuell, T. J. 1990. Phases of meaningful learning. Review of Educational Research. 60(4): 531-47

Shuell, T. J. 1992. Designing instructional computing systems for meaningful learning. In: Jones M. Winne, P. H. (eds.) 1992 Adaptive Learning Environments: Foundations and Frontiers. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Learning theories have changed dramatically since the 19960s. Traditional theories (based largely on stimulus-response views of behavior) have been superseded by newer theories based on cognitive psychology and a concern for social, cultural and developmental factors. Traditionally, learning has been defined as a change in behavior or performance resulting from experience and practice. Although a concern for change is still evident, the emphasis has shifted to the restructuring of knowledge and changes in understanding rather than changes in behavior. "Problem solving" rather than "memorization" has become the prevailing metaphor.

Over the years, various theoretical and philosophical differences regarding learning have existed, although some convergence of thinking has occurred. This entry discusses the continuous evolution of learning theory and research, especially as it relates to learning in an educational setting. As understanding of learning evolved, several transitions can be identified. Behavioral theories of learning dominated the field prior to the 1960s, when the "cognitive revolution" began to influence thinking about human behavior. Although cognitive psychology seldom focused per se, it influenced the way psychologists thought about acquisition of knowledge (Shuell 1968). During the 1980s, limitations of research in cognitive psychology (e. g., the use of laboratory rather than real-world tasks and a failure to consider noncognitive factors such as motivation, interest, and emotion) led to new and sometimes controversial theories such as situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship. The following discussion is organized in terms of these major eras.

1. Early Research on Learning

Research on learning flourished during the first half of the twentieth century, especially in the United States where it was heavily influenced by the behaviorism that dominated American psychology during this period and by the work of such seminal figures as E. L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner. Learning was conceptualized as something that occurs from the outside-in: environmental stimuli impinge on an individual who tries a response, and the consequences of this response (i.e., reinforcement) determines the probability of that response occurring again when the same or a similar situation is encountered. This Unites States research consisted largely of laboratory studies (often with animals) using simplistic tasks for the purpose of identifying universal laws of learning.

In contrast to the functional orientation of United States research, European research during this period focused more on the structural characteristics of mental functioning. The principal aim of this research was an understanding of the mental processes responsible for thinking and the other mental activities; this focus of research interest was evident in the studies of perception by Gestalt psychologists and the studies of cognitive development by Piagetian researchers. These studies were based on a philosophical concern for understanding the human mind, and unlike the United States interest in identifying factors responsible for educational change, there was little European concern for investigating how mental processes could be altered through instructional intervention (Resnick 1987). Vygotsky’s action psychology existed before it had a major impact on learning theory in either the United States or Europe.

The behavioral explanation of learning that emerged from research in the United States were considered too mechanistic by European psychologists, while European approaches were criticized by American psychologists for ignoring the "change" they considered so central to learning and for producing studies that lacked methodological soundness. Following the First World War, however, a variety of social and philosophical changes, along with certain technological advances, set the stage for new conceptions of the human mind. Theories of information processing and the advent of computers began to influence United States psychology, as did changing beliefs about the individual’s role and responsibility in society. The spirit of this age¾ reflecting the individual’s ability to influence the course of events both historically and personally¾ became most pronounced during the 1960s, when a strong egalitarism philosophy began to influence both United States psychology and social action. These factors made it possible to reconcile some of the differences between American and European research.

Influenced by German Gestalt psychology and the Wurzburg school in Europe, cognitive scientists began to view the learner as an active information processor analogous to computers and proposed conceptions of learning from the perspective of cognitive psychology. Consistent with European interest in mental processes, these early cognitive psychologists focused on the internal mediation that occurs between the originating stimulus and the learner’s response, for example, how the individual interprets the stimulus and processes it before making a response. This focus on the internal and active processes of the individual generated new conceptions of what constitutes learning. It should be noted, however, that while prevailing theories focus primarily on complex, meaningful forms of learning, other types of learning also exist. At times, for example, students learn information via operand and classical conditioning in spite of a reluctance by cognitive psychologists to acknowledge this fact. As Robert Gagne has convincingly argued for many years, (e.g., 1985), there are several different types of learning, and a comprehensive understanding of learning must include both behavioral and cognitive theories. Nevertheless, the following discussion focuses on meaningful learning, as this type of learning is generally accepted to be the primary goal of education, and since it better represents thinking about learning in the early 1990s.

2. Cognitive Conceptions of Meaningful Learning

The meaningful learning of complex material is an active, constructive, self-regulated, and goal-oriented process (Shuell 1986, 1992). The learner interprets the information to be acquired and the task in which it is embedded (e.g., reading a book, listening to an explanation, analyzing a picture, writing a critique) and constructs a mental representation of the task and material based on these perceptions and relevant prior knowledge. As essential information is always missing from the physical stimulus, the learner adds information in order to make sense of the situation. Thus, the learner’s representation is unique, and it may or may not be consistent with similar representations formed by other individuals (e.g., a teacher). In fact, the learner’s perceptions of the instructional situation and the type of psychological processing in which the learner engages is the single most important factor in determining what the individual learns. The teacher or instructional agent (e.g., book, computer) plays an important role, by ensuring that the learner is engaged appropriately with the instructional materials, but it is the learner who determines what is actually learned. Before elaborating further, it may be helpful to consider the nature of meaningful learning and how it differs from simpler forms of learning.

2.1 The Nature of Meaningful Learning

References to "meaningful learning" are common, although the exact nature of what is meant by the term is often vague. One major difference between meaningful, cognitive learning and simpler forms of learning is that the former is usually concerned with understanding, while the later is usually concerned with behavioral change. Although "understanding" is difficult to define in a rigorous manner, certain characteristics of the concept can be identified. In order for a body of knowledge to be meaningful and capable of being understood, it must be structured and organized. Few people would claim, for example, that it is possible to understand a telephone number, although most would agree that it is possible to learn, know, or remember one. Therefore, understanding a body of knowledge involves the establishment of relationships among the concepts and facts that comprise that body of knowledge, and such understanding can be assessed by paraphrasing, summarizing, or answering questions about the material and/or by performing a transfer task (Shuell 1992).

Another difference is that meaningful learning involves the acquisition of a complex body of knowledge while simpler forms of learning typically involve a collection of separate and isolated facts. Meaningful learning is also more likely to extend over a prolonged period and to involve different phases of learning (Shuell 1990). For example, during the initial phase of learning, the acquisition of more or less isolated facts may provide the conceptual glue necessary fro an initial structure; later in learning however, organizational strategies may provide the relationships necessary for synthesis and high-level understanding.

Although definitions of learning by cognitive psychologists are similar to more traditional definitions (Shuell 1986), cognitive scientists talk about learning in very different ways, as when Brown (1990) suggests that "Learning is much more an evolutionary, sense-making, experimental process of development that of simple acquisition" (p. 268).

For educational purposes, it should be borne in mind that the meaning does not reside in the material being learned, or depend on the manner in which it is presented to the student. The material may possess a potential for being meaningful by processing it ion a meaning way. It is not sufficient for the teacher to explain or demonstrate how various concepts and facts are related, since this activity can occur without meaningful learning taking place on the part of the student. The five characteristics of meaningful learning previously identified contribute to an understanding of the concept and are treated below.

(a) Active¾ the learner must carry out various cognitive operations on the information being learned for it to be acquired in a meaningful manner. Their emphasis, of course, is on mental rather than physical activity.

(b) Constructive¾ knowledge is not an entity that can be passed intact from one person (teacher, book, etc.) to another (the learner). Each learner perceives and interprets new information in a unique manner (based on factors such as prior knowledge, interest, motivation, attitude toward self, etc.) and then elaborates this information by relating it to existing knowledge and/or other aspects of the material being learned. Consequently, no two students end up with exactly the same understanding of the concepts and facts being studied.

(c) Cumulative¾ new learning builds upon the individual’s prior knowledge and mental models, although prior knowledge can be inhibit as well as facilitate new learning. The large body of literature on prior conceptions and the difficulty involved in overcoming misconceptions illustrate the potent influence that prior knowledge has on learning.

(d) Self-regulated¾ as learning progresses, the learner must make decisions about what to do next (e.g., rehearse a particular piece of information, seek an answer to a question that comes to mind, look for similarities among various prices of information). Effective learners also monitor the learning process, making periodic checks on how well the material is understood. The self-regulation of learning involves a number of factors, including metacognition, self-efficacy, and studying.

(e) Goal-oriented¾ meaningful learning is more likely to be successful if the learner has at least a general idea of the goal being pursued and holds appropriate expectations for achieving the desired understanding. Providing instructional objectives is one of many ways to establish goals, although in many instructional situations it is more appropriate for students to develop or discover goals independently. In any case, it is the student’s goal that is critical. The mere statement of objectives or goals by a teacher is not sufficient; they must be adopted as the learner’s personal goals if they are to impact the learning process.

2.2 Learning Functions

The preceding discussion described the nature of meaningful learning, but it provided little information on how learning actually occurs. Various psychological principles of learning (drawn from a large body of theory and research) are summarized below (Shuell 1992). These learning functions are relevant for different types of learning, although the extent of their applicability depends on the particular type under consideration. Although these processes occur within the individual, they can be performed in a number of equally valid and effective ways, that is, various methods are functionally equivalent for eliciting the relevant cognitive processes in the learner.

These learning functions, along with the characteristics of meaningful learning outlined above, provide a summary of cognitive conceptions of learning. The assumption that the individual is an active processor of new information guides the majority of research on learning in the early 1990s and has, to a large extent, reconciled some of the differences among earlier approaches. Nevertheless, limitations in the explanatory power of research in cognitive psychology have prompted new questions and insights.

Table 1: Twelve Learning Functions

Expectations

Meaningful learning is most effective when the learner has at least a general idea of what is to be accomplished from the learning task. Expectations change as learning progresses, and include affective (emotional, self-efficacy, etc.) as well as cognitive goals. Providing an overview or the student identifying the purpose of a lesson are examples of ways in which expectations can be initiated.

Motivation

The learner must persist and contribute effort if meaningful learning is to occur. Motivation and expectations are interrelated—e.g., expectations regarding self-efficacy may affect one's motivation.

Prior Knowledge Activation

Both cognitive and affective prerequisites must be activated so that relevant attitudes and appropriate knowledge structures in the learner's memory are available for use. This function can be activated so that relevant attitudes and appropriate knowledge structures in the learner's memory are available for use. This function can be initiated by reminding students of prerequisite information or by asking oneself what is already known about the topic being learned.

Attention

The material being studied always contains a large amount of information, and the learner must focus on relevant information, disregarding (at least for the moment) the irrelevant information that is available.

Encoding

Information in short-term memory must be encoded before further processing. The learner adds personal meaning to the new information, such as seeing a stimulus and interpreting it as a car, although the same information might be encoded in various ways by different individuals or under different conditions. The use of memories and/or diagrams are examples of how encoding can be initiated.

Comparison

Ac body of potential meaningful knowledge contains many interrelated facts and concepts. In order for it to be acquired in a manner that involves understanding rather than rote memorization, the learner must make many comparisons in searching for similarities and differences that permit the formation of higher-order relationships characteristic of understanding.

Hypothesis Generation

Hypotheses about the material/task being learned are generated as part of the active, constructive nature of meaningful learning. This function can be initiated by encouraging students to try alternate courses of action or by the learner generating alternative solutions.

Repetition

Rarely is something learned in a single exposure. The nature of repetition in meaningful learning is different from repetition in simpler forms of learning, but it is still necessary. Meaningful learning takes time; going over the material more than once provides opportunities for new relationships to emerge. The inducement of multiple perspectives and engaging in systematic reviews are tow ways this function can be initiated.

Feedback

Feedback on the adequacy and accuracy of the learner's understanding is necessary for learning to progress. Without adequate and instructionally relevant feedback, the learner is likely to flounder or practice inappropriate behaviors.

Evaluation

Feedback is necessary but not sufficient; the learner must interpret and evaluate the feedback to determine its reliability and how to make best use of it.

Monitoring

The learning process needs to be monitored, preferably by the learner, to determine if reasonable progress is being made. Self-testing to determine if understanding has been achieved is an example of how this function can be initiated.

Combination, Integration, Synthesis

As learning progresses, isolated pieces of information must be combined in ways that permit the integration and synthesis of information from various sources. Developing organizational schemes such as tables and diagrams is an example of how this function can be initiated.

3. Beyond Cognitive Conceptions: Toward New Understandings of Learning from Instruction

Although cognitive psychology and the information-processing model continue to dominate research on learning, critics have argued that important considerations are ignored by focusing strictly on cognitive processes. These considerations include concerns for: (a) the social/cultural nature of learning; (b) "authentic" (real world) rather than artificial tasks; (c) the role of motivation, interest, and affect; and (d) the domain-specific nature of learning. In addition, instructional psychology has been concerned largely with describing the nature of expertise rather than with clarifying how this expertise is acquired. Consequently, cognitive psychology has not contributed significantly to a theory concerned with the instructional interventions necessary to help students achieve expertise. These concerns represent emerging areas of investigation and extensions of existing cognitive theories of learning and illustrate a transition in thinking about meaningful learning.

3.1 Social and Situational Factors

Concern for learning in a social/cultural context has been heavily influenced by the writings of Vygotsky, work in cultural psychology, and calls for "authentic learning" (e.g., Brown et al. 1989). Cognitive psychology's strict focus on mental processes has been criticized for its failure to consider social and cultural mediators that affect learning.

Cultural psychology in particular has investigated the learning of mathematical or other daily living skills in non-Western and less school-dominated cultures, , suggesting that Western studies of learning and developmental psychology have been by the structure of school. Furthermore, Brown et al. (1989) suggest that learning and cognition are situated in a particular cultural context (culture on a small, not large, scale) and that knowledge evolves by being used in "authentic" activities. This concern for authentic learning argues that substantial differences exist between learning as it typically occurs in school and learning as it occurs in the real world.

These notions of situated cognition and authentic learning have suggested a model of teaching and learning known as "cognitive apprenticeship" (see Brown et al. 1989). This model provides a framework for designing learning environments in which students learn to model performance through a system of conceptual scaffolding that is gradually eliminated.

The theory of learning proposed by Russian psychologist Gal'perin has received attention in Europe (for a good summary of Ga'perin's work, see De Corte 1977). This theory, based on Vygotsky's social action theory, suggests that there are three stages or levels of action (material, verbal, and mental) between the interaction with external objects and the development of higher-order mental processes.

As a result of the increased recognition of cultural and social influences, most of the educationally relevant work in cognitive psychology has moved away from what are perceived as sterile laboratory settings derived from earlier behavioral approaches, to more naturalistic classroom situations and beyond to the real world. This emphasis on naturalistic settings has also supported the development of ethnographic and phenomenographic approaches to studying students' perspectives and activities during learning.

3.2 Motivation and Emotion

Historically, research on learning has demonstrated a market lack of concern for motivational and affective aspects of learning, especially within cognitive psychology's information-processing approach. These factors are beginning to receive increased attention in thinking about meaningful learning in the early 1990s. In relating studies on motivation to the educational context, Pintrich and De Groot (1990) posit three ways in which motivation influences learning: (a) the individual's belief about his or her ability to accomplish a task, a concern related to the expectation function discussed in previous Table 1; (b) the learner's reasons or purpose for engaging in a task, as illustrated by research on interest (see Schiefeel 1991); and (c) the learner's affective reactions to the task (e.g., anxiety, anger, pride, shame, and guilt). Research on motivation is also beginning to investigate motivation for specific tasks rather than more general traits or influences such as achievement motivation.

3.3 Domain-specific Learning

Learning theories have traditionally been concerned with general laws that hold across virtually all situations. The concern for expert-novice differences that began to appear in the late 1970s resulted in new ideas about the nature of competence. These ideas, along with a concern for social/cultural factors, led to theories that stress the domain-specific nature of learning. Transfer across domains began to be questioned, although debate continues about the balance between the domain-specific and domain-general aspects of learning.

3.4 Instructional Interaction

The relationship between learning and teaching is not always as obvious as it might appear. The proper balance between student learning (studying, discovery, etc.) and didactic teaching has been debated for centuries, and the two have typically been studied as separate entities rather than an integrated process. After many years of being more concerned with describing the nature of expertise than with the means by which that expertise is acquired, cognitive psychology is beginning to address issues of instructional intervention (Glaser 1991; Shuell 1986, 1992). The cognitive apprenticeship model, reciprocal teaching, and cooperative learning (the latter two of which grew out of concern for the early 1990s to develop appropriate ways to facilitate learning. To the extent that meaningful learning is a self-regulated process of discovery, then the role of the instructional agent (teacher, book, computer, etc.) poses a challenging question for those interested in understanding learning in educational settings (Shuell 1992). Some of the most promising activities in actual classroom settings is contained in the work of Nuthall and Alton-Lee (1990) in New Zealand.

4. Conclusion

Learning is no longer viewed merely as the acquisition of behaviors or isolated facts. The restructuring of a person's prior knowledge is now acknowledged as a more appropriate way of thinking about meaningful learning , although other forms of learning also exist. In addition, the relationship between learning and development, the likelihood of phases in complex learning (Shuell 1990), and learning from cases are all receiving increased attention. These new views expand the understanding of learning by focusing on factors often ignored in previous research. Future research, however, must not lose sight of how learning occurs, the various types of learning involved in school learning, and ways in which learning can be influenced by education.

II. Learning to Learn: Adult Education

The following bibliography (APA style) was researched and referenced in text below, for this sub-topic.

Argyris, C. 1982. Reasoning, Learning, and Action: individual and Organizational. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, California

Barrows, H. S., Tamblyn R. M. 1980. Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education. Springer, New York

Barrows, H. S. 1988. The Tutorial Process. Southern Illinois School of Medicine, Springfield, Illinois

Brookfield, S. D. 1990. Expanding knowledge about how we learn. In: Smith, R. M. (Ed.) 1990

Candy, P. 1990. How people learn to learn. In: Smith, R. M. (Ed.) 1990

Cheren, M. 1987. Learning Management: Emerging Directions for Learning to Learn in the Workplace. National Center for Research in Vocational Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

Cheren, M. 1987. Prompting active learning in the workplace. In: Smith, R. M. (Ed.) 1990

Gibbs, G. 1981. Teaching Students to Learn. Open University Press, Milton Keynes

Gibbs, G. 1992. Improving the Quality of Student Learning. Technical and Educational Services, Bristol

Hammond, D. 1990. Designing and facilitating learning-to-learn activities. In: Smith, R. M. (ed.) 1990

Holec, H. 1985. Autonomous learning schemes: Principles and organization. In: Riley, P. (Ed.) 1985 Discourse and Learning: Papers in Applied Linguistics and Language Learning from the DRAPEL. Longman, London

Marsick, J. 1990. Action learning and reflection in the workplace. In: Mezirow, J. (Ed.) 1990 Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, California

Mezirow, J. et al. 1990. Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, California

Mumford, A. 1986. Learning to learn for managers. Journal of European Industrial Training 10(2): 3-28

Schlossberg, N. K., Lynch, A. Q., Chickering, A. W. 1989. Improving Higher Education Environments for Adults: Responsive Programs and Services From Entry to Departure. Jossey-Bas, San Francisco, California

Smith, R. M. 1982. Learning How to Learn: Applied Theory for Adults. Cambridge University Press, New York

Smith, R. M. 1992. Implementing the learning to learn concept. In: Tuijnman, A. C., Van Der Kamp, M. (Eds.) Learning Across the Lifespan: theories, Research, Policies. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Long proposed as a major goal for formal education, learning to learn has increasingly become an object of systematic inquiry and experimentation. While much of the expanding body of relevant information pertains to the pre-adult years, the emphasis here is on learning to learn in adulthood.

1. Definition

Learning to learn is understood to be a complex, lifelong process—or constellation of processes—through which people acquire and modify their skills and capabilities for knowledge acquisition, problem-solving, and the extraction of meaning from experience. It refers to learning about learning itself. Conceptually, the idea subsumes the more specific notion of "metacognition" ("knowing about knowing" or "thinking about thinking").

There is no consensus definition of "learning to learn" (nor of "learn how to learn," a frequently used alternative term). Candy (1990) defines it discursively as follows:

(a) It is (lifelong) developmental process in which people’s conceptions of learning evolve and become consciously available to systematic analysis and review.

(b) It involves the acquisition of a repertoire of attitudes, understandings, and skills that allow people to become more effective, flexible, and self-organized learners in a variety of contexts.

(c) It occurs both prior to, and coincidental with, learning endeavors.

(d) It may be enhanced through processes of formal schooling and the way in which the curriculum is constructed and is therefore a viable—perhaps crucial—objective for educational systems at all levels.

(e) It involves entering into the deep meaning structures of material to be learned and, in its most advanced forms, may lead to critical awareness of assumptions that influence how people perceive knowledge and how they think, feel, and act when learning.

(f) It has both generic and context-specific components.

(g) It is multidimensional entity whose meaning varies according to the meaning given to the word learning. (pp. 34-35)

An unresolved issue of definition is the relationship between learning to learn and "critical reflection." Mezirow et al. (1990) states that critical reflection, validity or justification of one’s "taken-for-granted premises" and that adult educators have a special responsibility for its fostering and for helping learners plan to take action. The process is said to involve becoming less fearful of change: "becoming reflective if the content, process, and especially the premises of one’s prior learning is central to cognition for survival in modern societies" (p. 375). Brookfield (1990 p. 332) posits "reflecting on reflections" as the "same kind of psychological processes as learning to learn." However, there appears to be some danger here of a reductionist point of view that may vitiate the impact of an overall concept of learning to learn that accommodates to such disparate maters, among many, as study skills enhancement, training for independent or collaborative learning, and enhancing holistics learning capacity. There clearly is more to learning than becoming critically reflective.

2. How People Learn to Learn

Learning to learn is a matter of both aptitude and personal experience, and people can typically be said to learn in a relatively haphazard manner. From in-school and out-of-school experience, people constantly acquire new information and behaviors. While so engaged, they gradually develop personal learning strategies and personal knowledge about the optimum conditions for learning. Each person develops a concept of "self-as-learner." The learning to learn process not so much from deliberate interventions on the part of teachers or trainers to improve learning capacity and performance as from personal interpretations over time of learning-related expedience. These interpretations often prove dysfunctional as far as becoming an active, flexible, confident learner in a variety of contexts is concerned. Hence the growing interest in the deliberate enhancement of learning capacities, dispositions, and strategies through such means as curriculum planning, instruction, and training (Candy 1990).

One perspective on the issue of how people learn to learn comes from identifying what are believed to be the most important factors leading to effectiveness in lifelong learning. Among these there is considerable agreement about the importance of awareness, reflection, and self-monitoring. The three concepts exhibit an interactive and mutually re-enforcing relationship. "Awareness" refers to insight into self-as-learner and to understandings about education, learning, and learning-related processes.

Effective learners are usually able to describe their preferred ways of taking in and processing information or receiving instruction and undergoing evaluation as well as their preferred environments for learning (i.e., their learning styles). They tend to be more aware of their motives, purposes, and goals for learning. They understand that to learn may be variously to memorize pieces of information, to acquire knowledge for practical application, to abstract meaning from experience, or even to re-interpret reality. They are sensitive to a difference between learning and being taught. They possess reasonably accurate perceptions of the extent of t heir knowledge and their capabilities. They are also aware of the in- and out-of-school opportunities and resources for learning available to them, which are relatively rich in most industrialized societies. It has also been shown to be useful for the individual to develop something of a sophisticated concept of knowledge, one that acknowledges differences between official, unofficial, and personal knowledge and all that have value—that a person may think relativistically about one domain of knowledge and narrowly or rigidly about others, and that many problems have more than one "correct" answer. People thus learn to learn more effectively as they develop awareness as learners. Self-monitoring and reflection drive this development.

3. Facilitation

Facilitation takes two primary forms: either (a) building a learning to learn dimension into programming and instruction—for example, teaching a subject from a learning to learn stance and perspective; or (b) designing and conducting distinct, discrete events aimed at learning proficiency enhancement—such as a workshop on coping with examinations or on group problem-solving strategies. The latter type of intervention is frequently labeled "training." Approaches and resources for facilitation are discussed in Smith (1982) and Gibbs (1981, 1992).

Facilitators are usually advised to expect resistance and difficulties in helping people to externalize, examine, and modify assumptions and habits related to learning, study, and knowledge. It is recommended that they (a) find ways to make process training palatable and understandable; (b) maintain a climate conducive to behavioral change; (c) carefully adapt approaches and materials to different audiences; and (d) seek ways of continually strengthening activities, self-awareness, and reflection in learning (Smith 1982, 1992).

Hammond (1990) describes and evaluates five comprehensive approaches for enhancing effectiveness in learning and states that such programs are likely to be effective and gain acceptance to the extent that they include a credible theoretical base, undergo field testing and evaluation, provide practice and application activity and support in the employment of new behaviors, make available useful materials for both facilitator and learner, and provide training for facilitators if needed.

The role of the facilitator in problem-based learning (Barrows and Tamblyn 1980) has been carefully analyzed and described in Barrows (1988), the principal advocate of an approach intended to place active, independent learning and problem-solving at the center of medical education and continuing education for physicians. Meeting in small groups with a "tutor," participants work at simulated problems drawn from everyday practice:

The tutor ... facilitates student learning through guidance at the meta-cognitive level. ... It is the tutor’s expertise in this process, not in the content areas in which the students are studying, that is important. The students are expected to acquire the knowledge they need from content experts ... who serve as consultants, as well as books, journals, and automated information sources. ... The tutor guides the students through repeated practices in reasoning and self-directed study, improved through their increasing skills in self-assessment. Although the tutor may be more directive initially and closely models the reasoning processes and information seeking processes he hopes the students will acquire, he eventually withdraws from the group as they learn to take on responsibility for their own learning (p. 50)

Among the facilitative strategies employed by the tutor with this approach are modeling, climate setting, the asking of probing questions, suggesting resources, challenging group members to substantiate their statements, consensus testing, monitoring of group members’ educational progress, and "interventions necessary to maintain an effective group process in which all contribute" (p. 20). Problem-based learning has also been applied in corporate training and faculty development as well as business, professional, and liberal arts courses in higher education institutions.

4. Methods and Applications

There has been considerable interest in the feasibility of helping people to learn more meaningfully—to move from a superficial or "surface" approach (e.g., rote memorization) to the learning of subject matter toward a so-called "deep" approach that results in better understanding of what is learned. Research in several countries has found the use of the surface approach to be common in courses with heavy workloads, little opportunity for in-depth pursuit, little learner input into topics or methodology, and anxiety-producing assessment systems. Those who employ a deep approach understand more and produce superior written work, remember better, and receive higher marks than those employing a surface approach (Gibbs 1992).

A comprehensive national study in the United Kingdom, the "Improving Student Learning Project," identified nine elements, with some examples of appropriate methods are as follows: (a) encouraging independent learning (learning contracts); (b) supporting personal development (intensive group work); (c) presenting problems (exploring "real world" issues); (d) encouraging reflection (learning diaries or journals); (e) independent group work (peer tutoring); (f) learning by doing (simulations, games); (g) helping learners become more aware of task demands and purposes for learning; (h) project work (individual or group); and (I) fine tuning—minor modifications of conventional methods (making lectures more "interactive").

The above elements emerged from case studies of innovation projects undertaken by volunteer instructors of conventional and extramural courses at 10 colleges under the leadership of the Oxford Centre for Staff Development, which now offers faculty training workshops and consultation to academic departments and institutions. The project demonstrated that significant improvements in the quality of student learning are possible within existing course restraints through appropriate modifications in instructional design and delivery. Optimum results require comprehensive changes involving staff teams, appropriate staff development activity, and usually a modification of assessment systems (Gibbs 1992).

Successful applications of the learning to learn concept in North American colleges and universities are described in Schlossberg et al. (1989). A few institutions have undertaken to integrate learning to learn philosophy and related activity into either the overall college curriculum or in special baccalaureate degree programs for the "returning student." Among these are Alverno College (Milwaukee) and DePaul University (Chicago). Almost 80 percent of 2,600 higher education institutions surveyed in 1985 reported offering a credit or noncredit course on the topic of coping with college—employing such methods as support groups, diagnostic instruments, self-assessment, training in self-monitoring, and autobiographies describing learning experiences. In some instances, substantially superior academic performances of course participants have been documented through research as ell as positive effects on intellectual, interpersonal, political, and civic development. In addition, most institutions maintain learning centers or academic support services for students seeking to improve competence in learning.

5. Fostering Autonomy in Learning

The acquisition of learning strategies, listening and viewing comprehension, and the fostering of autonomy and self-direction in learning are among the topics investigated at the Center for Research and Pedagogical Applications at the University of Nancy, France. Holec (1985) states the following with regard to self-direction and autonomy in learning (an "autonomization" process):

The acquisition of autonomy by the learner is the fundamental goal in the C.R.A.P.E.L. approach, and it is important to underline from the outset that it is a tendency, a dynamic process with a future, not a stable condition, something which develops—hence the neologism "autonomization." This process can be seen from three different points of view: From the point of view of the learner, it is a matter of acquiring those capacities which are necessary to carry out a self-directed learning programme. From the point of view of the teacher, it is a matter of determining those types of intervention which are conducive to the learner’s acquiring those capacities. From the institutional point of view, it is a matter of creating those conditions which allow the learner and the teacher to put these aims into practice. (p. 180)

The necessary learner competencies have been found to lay in the defining of objectives, content, materials, and techniques; defining the place, time, and pace of learning; and evaluating what one has learned. Since very few people possess such knowledge and skill, it becomes necessary to learn to learn—a process requiring a radical change in the role of the learners and their perception of that role. Individuals need to be disabused of the notion that they can learn only from experts and usually have to modify their notion of what learning is. Considerable self-examination is involved.

Teachers foster the autonomization process by providing two kinds of support "continuously adapted to the learner’s state at any given moment" (Holec 1985 p. 184): technical support and psycho-social support. The former involves providing help as needed in the learner’s analysis and making of instrumental decisions and the surfacing of personal "theory" informing one’s actions (e.g., in choice of objective, learning resource, or strategy). Psycho-social support takes the form of encouraging learners’ commitment to the acquisition of autonomy and to the gradual development of the requisite confidence and skills. Among the potential problems are allowing the learner to become overly dependent on the teacher and the providing of more or less support than is needed. Like the learners, the teachers usually have to examine or modify their conceptions of teaching and learning.

6. Learning to Learn in the Workplace

Interest in learning to learn in the workplace stems from such factors as increased concern for organizational productivity, organizational renewal, and the role of managers as learners and teachers. Mumford (1986 p. 8) carefully examined programs and publications in the area of learning to learn for managers in the United Kingdom and the United States, citing, among others, such potential benefits as the following:

(a) an increase in the capacity of individuals to learn;

(b) a reduction in the frustration of being exposed to inefficient learning processes;

(c) an increase in motivation to learn;

(d) development of learning opportunities well beyond formally created situations;

(e) a multiplier effect for the manager in his or her developmental relationship with his or her subordinates;

(f) the reduction of dependence on an instructor;

(g) the provision of processes which carry through beyond formal programs into on-the-job learning;

(h) the better identification of the role of learning in effective managerial behavior, for example, in problem-solving or team work;

(i) the development of more effective behavior in relation to the crucial subject of change.

Mumford (1986) concluded, however, that the capacity to learn effectively is not a priority for most managers and that learning to learn should be integrated with something they are concerned with, such as developing a specific competence. He found relatively little treatment of the topic of the manager as learner and even less concerning how managers learn to learn, but remained convinced that organizations and human resources personnel cannot afford to ignore this area. Mumford also identified some key factors influencing learning to learn—job content, motivation and personal blockages to learning, influence of superiors and subordinates, and organizational approaches to helping managers to learn more effectively.

Marsick (1990) advocates wider use of action learning such as those developed at Sweden’s management Institute in Lund in order to foster critical reflectivity, suggesting that these are superior to the quality circles for this purpose. Small group problem-solving workshops through projects linked to taking action on organization-specific issues are central to action learning.

Some publications describe and discuss the broader topic of the relevance of learning to learn initiatives directed to all levels of personnel in the organization and ways to foster development of the "learning organization" (Cheren 1987, 1990, Argyris 1982). Learning to learn efforts include study strategy workshops and interactive video courses; orientation to in-house and outside educational opportunities; and the establishment of corporate learning centers for help with personal learning projects, self-assessment, and answers to reference questions.

Cheren (1990) sees learning to learn applications in the workplace as processes to be built into the formal training activities (e.g., enhancing strategies required for a particular course) and, perhaps more important, a dimension of day-to-day activity. Human resources and training professionals are urged to take the lead in improving problem-solving by individuals and work-station groups, establishing in-house learning resource centers, supporting the employee’s personal development plans, and designing record keeping and evaluation systems that credit and reward informal and formal efforts to learn. He suggests "learning management" as preferred conceptual rubric in the workplace.

7. Conclusion

The viability and utility of the concept of learning to learn now appears to be reasonably well-established despite the complexities of the phenomena involved and the challenges posed by implementation. It seems likely that teaching and learning and learning to learn will henceforth tend to be understood as interacting and independent processes. People learn to learn effectively through educational experiences and training that result in flexibility and awareness as well as the development of a repertoire of appropriate strategies for various learning contexts. Self-monitoring and reflective capacities tend to govern people’s development as learners and problem-solvers. Theory regarding the facilitation of learning capacities is emerging from research and experience in a variety of contexts, and useful training resources and techniques are becoming available. Dissemination of this information needs to become more systematic and widespread.

III. Learning Activity

The following bibliography (APA style) was researched and referenced in text below, for this sub-topic.

Boekaerts, M. 1992. The adaptive learning process: initiating and maintaining behavioural change. Applied Psychology: An International Review 4(4): 375-97

Davydov, V. V. 1988a. Problems of developmental teaching: The experience of theoretical and experimental psychological research. Soviet Education 30(8): 15-97; 30(9): 3-83; 30(10): 3-77

Davydov, V. V. 1988b. Learning activity: The main problems needing further research. Multidisciplinary Newsletter for Activity Theory 1:29-36

De Corte, E. 1990. Acquiring and teaching cognitive skills: A state-of-the-art of theory and research. In: Drenth, P. J. D., Sergeant, J. A., Takens, R. J. (Eds.) 1990. European Perspective in Psychology; Vol. 1, Wiley, London

Engerstrom, Y. 1991. Non scholae sed vitae discimus: Toward overcoming the encapsulation of school learning. Learning and Instruction. 1(3): 243-59

Gal’perin, P. Y. 1989. Stages in the development of mental acts. In: Cole, M., Malzman, I. (Eds.) 1969. A Handbook of Contemporary Soviet Psychology, Basic Books, New York

Lompscher, J. 1989. Formation of learning activity in pupils. In: Mandl, H., De Corte, E., Bennett, N., Friedrich, H. F. (Eds.) 1989. Learning and Instruction: European Research in an International Context Vol. 2.2: Analysis of Complex Skills and Complex Knowledge Domains. Pergamon Press, Oxford

Resnick, L. B. (Ed.) 1989. Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey

Van Oers, B. 1990. The developmental of mathematical thinking in school: A comparison of the action-psychological and information-processing approaches. International Journal of Education Research. 14(1): 51-66

The concept of learning activity is part of the approach of activity theory to learning elaborated in the framework of the cultural-historical tradition (as developed by Vygotsky, Luria, Leontiev, and others). Activity (German, Tatigkeit; Russian, dejatel’nost) is understood as a fundamental form of human existence, as interaction between humans and the world presupposing an active, goal-oriented, conscious, societal person. Using certain means under certain conditions the person performs actions on different material and mental levels, directed toward the modification or generation of activity objects which may also be human beings. Interactions between person and object are mediated by other persons, just as interactions between persons are mediated by objects. Activity results may not coincide with the intended goals of an activity consists in modifications of the person often unintended and unnoticed by himself or herself.

1. Essence and Structure of Learning Activity

Learning activity is a special kind of human activity. It is directed toward the acquisition of social knowledge and competence, by reproducing them individually under conditions of societal, and especially pedagogical, guidance, and conditions of social communication and cooperation (Davydov 1988a, 1988b; Lompscher 1989). In this context the notion of acquisition means the transformation of objective societal values, psychic structures and features.

Learning effects are produced, on the one hand, by activities directed toward other goals (such as play, work, and communication) and, on the other hand, by activity specially directed toward learning goals. Therefore, a distinction can be made between learning through activity and learning as a special activity. From a historical perspective, learning activity has developed from work activity, but ontogenetically it emerges from play and everyday activity.

As a special activity learning has to be acquired by the individual concerned—in other words, learning has to be learned. Learning activity therefore assumes a predominant position in a person’s activity system over a certain period—as a rule, under conditions of schooling. When it has been acquired in some measure, it loses this position, but not its significance in personality development: acquisition of knowledge and competence remains an important task throughout life (through extensions of general education, vocational training, and the acquisition of further or higher qualifications).

Learning activity differs from other kinds of activity, by being directed toward a person’s self-modification or self-improvement: namely, toward the formation of the subjective prerequisites necessary to accomplish new, and ever more complex and difficult classes of tasks. In this activity the whole person is involved and develops as a whole. Learning results are, as a rule, broader than learning goals directed toward knowledge and competence. In this process the interrelations with the social and material worlds become increasingly indirect and complicated—entailing the formation of a theoretical approach toward the world. New motivational and emotional characteristics develop, and cognitive and metacognitive structures and strategies are elaborated. The psychic activity regulation operates as a whole and must be analyzed and formed in all its complexity and interrelations.

The macrostructure of learning activity consists of the following elements.

First, there are the learners themselves, who at a specific level of personality development perform learning actions in order to reach certain learning goals. Individual activity is embedded in social interaction (coordination, communication, cooperation). Learning results depend principally on the quality and intensity of the learner’s activity, which in turn is infle3unced by cognitive, motivational, emotional, volitional, and social capacities interacting with the social and material conditions of activity.

Second, there are the learning objects to be acquired. When an aspect of the world becomes the object of learning activity, it is in many ways transformed by the level of societal knowledge and ideology applied to it, by theoretical and political principles of selection and preparation, by didactical methods and means of presentation, by psychological views of learning, and the learners. Learning results are not obtained by the actions of the learning objects upon learners, but, on the contrary, by the learners’ own actions upon the objects.

Third, there are the learning tools necessary for attaining certain learning goals. The main tools are the learner’s actions, which have to be in accordance with the content and structure of the learning object in order to make acquisition possible. Therefore, these actions must be acquired; only then can they serve as tools for learning. Material or other objects become learning tools only by including them in the structure of appropriate learning actions.

Fourth are conditions under which activity takes place. Political, institutional, and familial conditions, social climate, and material situations, may promote or hinder the activity process and its results. Indeed, the optimization of learning conditions is the real aim and object of research and of practical efforts relating to learning and instruction, directed toward the promotion of personality (i.e., cognitive, motivational) development by learning activity as well as other activities.

2. Major Principles of Analysis and Formation of Learning Activity

Although analysis and formation of learning activity require different methods and means, they are mutually connected and presuppose each other. The causal—genetic methodology of activity theory analyzes the genesis of an object and tries to reveal the causes and conditions of its development as well as the modifications of its content and structure. However, the identification of a given state, structure or feature—through necessary—is insufficient for understanding learning activity. Learning results must be related to the processes and conditions affecting them. If a certain learning effect can be produced or generated by creating or organizing activity conditions according to theoretically and empirically founded hypotheses, and if the development and structure of this learning effect can be analyzed in the process of formation, it can then be explained and recommendations can be offered for educational practice. As a rule, this is a process of gradual approximation involving different trials and steps.

2.1 Unity of Learning and Learning Object

A certain level and structure of learning activity are the prerequisites for the acquisition of a certain particular learning object. Confronted with new subject if a person is domains or higher-level tasks in the course of learning activity, appropriate learning actions have to be elaborated or raised to a higher level Deficits in cognitive, motivational, and other components of activity regulation need to be overcome. However, this cannot be done without consideration of the learning object which is being sought. The learning activity necessary for the acquisition of a certain learning object must be formed in the process of acquiring that object; in other words, what is required is the promotion of development through organization and formation of activity according to the demands of learning objects.

2.2 Unity of Zone of Actual Performance and Zone of Proximal Development

A Zone of Actual Performance (ZAP) involves the tasks mastered independently by the learner as a result of previous acquisition processes. Such a zone opens up a Zone of Proximal Development (SPD) consisting of actions performed with support and under guidance, or by using a model. Learning tasks aimed at promoting the learners’ development should be oriented toward this ZPD, because in this zone psychic structures and features not yet fully developed are required and therefore must be intensively promoted. In this process the ZPD is changed into a new ZAP, opening up a new ZPD and so fourth. Determining a certain ZPD requires the analysis of the interrelations between three factors:

(a) the objective demand of the learning object in terms of the material and mental activity aiming at acquisition (content and task structure);

(b) the individual conditions necessary for satisfying these demands (knowledge, strategies, attitudes, etc.);

(c) the individual conditions actually available in the learner.

The discrepancy between the necessary and actual prerequisites of learning opens up directions and possibilities for the next steps to be carried out, and for the conditions that must be created to achieve this aim. If there is no discrepancy at all, no learning and developmental effect is possible. If the discrepancy is too large and the learner cannot bridge the gap, no learning and developmental effect is possible, or the activity will be too strenuous mentally and/or physically.

2.3 Unit of Learning Activity and Teaching Activity

Learning activity emerges and develops in permanent interaction with learning activity under instructional conditions. In this interaction learners and teachers are both subjects and objects of activity and of mutual influence. Their actions must be coordinated in order to reach their goals, which are not identical in learners and teachers. Both are mutually dependent: learning takes place under conditions created and organized by teachers (in fact by the whole society), existing cognitive and motivational quantities and their realization in the activity process.

The decisive matter is how the teacher is able to analyze the level and structure of the learning activity and to organize conditions for its further formation and development. Therefore, teachers’ main orientation cannot be toward the learning object and their own instructional actions and strategies for transmitting the object to the learners ("into their heads"). Rather, teachers have to focus on the activity necessary for the acquisition of that object and toward the learners’ facility for this activity. Only in this way will the teacher be able to find and to organize conditions under which zones of proximal development can be transformed into zones of actual performance. To achieve this goal it is insufficient to provide opportunities for spontaneous activity under given conditions. It is necessary to form systematically the required learning activity—not in the sense of affecting a more or less passive object, but in the sense of creating conditions for self-development of active subjects. The starting point here is determined by the learners’ developmental needs, existing shares, and potentialities.

3. Main Conditions of the Formation of Learning Activity

The following sections will describe one variant of the activity theory referred to as ascending from the abstract to the concrete. In this framework the following conditions for the formation of learning activity are emphasized.

3.1 Learning Goal Formation

Objects and tasks corresponding to learners’ needs and motives produce concrete learning goals under the following conditions: of the learning abilities are sufficient to understand the demands and if the learner’s actions in this task situation are directed not only toward attempts to solve the task but also toward the analysis of the demand structure in relation to their own abilities. Evaluation of and reflection on this interrelationship makes a learner aware of what "I do not yet know or what I am not yet able to do, but what I want to know or to be able to do." The unknown can be formulated only in general, global terms. As such, the direction of search and effort is determined. A more or less broad learning perspective is formed which serves as a basis for orientation, planning, control, and evaluation of learning progress.

3.2 Formation of Learning Actions

When actions necessary for attaining certain learning goals are unavailable to the learner, or when quality does not correspond with new learning demands, then they must be systematically formed. Action patterns are given and conditions must be created for their acquisition. In accordance with the concrete learning abilities this may be done in a more or less systematic step-by-step formation oriented toward the acquisition of as yet insufficiently formed abilities, beginning—if necessary—with movement from material or materialized actions via verbalization to mental actions (internalization in interrelation with externalization as proposed by Gal’perin 1969). In this process complex actions may have to be subdivided first into partial actions, in order to form them separately and then to integrate them into complex actions.

3.3 Formation of Initial Abstractions and Learning Models

Since they operate with concrete objects or situations and trying to discover the essential features and relations that underlie the phenomena and their modifications, learners need a form of crystallization of what they have found out. An appropriate form for this purpose is a learning model that embodies only the most essential features and relations of the learning object, analyzed so far in a simple graphic, verbal, or other format. Thus, an initial abstraction can be generated that is different from the concrete phenomena and contains only the most essential constituting attributes. Such learning models, representing initial abstractions, are significant results of learning activity; at the same time they are starting points and tools of further activity. The ascent from the abstract to the concrete has its fundamental basis in the analysis of concrete phenomena.

3.4 Formation of Concretization

Initial abstractions are used for penetrating the richness and multifaceted nature of concrete objects, processes, and situations in a learning domain. This process can be organized in such a way that ever more complex learning tasks are tackled. Concrete phenomena are analyzed by means of abstractions which are in turn permanently enriched and further developed by their interaction with the concrete.

4. From Theory to Practice

Other main conditions of the formation of learning activity in the framework of activity theory can only be mentioned briefly; namely, problem-solving, cooperation, communication, reflection, and social relations. This activity and formation approach was formulated in different subject-matter domains (e.g., mathematics, learning of native and foreign languages, history, geography, biology, and physics) and at different educational levels (mainly in secondary education, but also in preschool and in secondary education—and in some cases in vocational training and higher education). Research data reported in the literature show that, when applied, it has produced strong effects with respect to the formation of learning motivation, of concepts and strategies, of theoretical thinking and of domain-specific competence.

The learning activity approach corresponds to other approaches to learning and instruction in such crucial points as orientation toward the active learner and the creation of situations appropriate for active learning(see Boekaerts 1992, De Corte 1990, Engestrom 1991, Resnick 1989, Van Oers 1990). A productive synthesis of different approaches may promote scientific understanding and practical effectiveness in learning and instruction.